Project
Risk Assessment
Resource Extraction

Resource Extraction

Receipt Paper Rolls
Image Courtesy of Panda Paper on Unsplash

Hazard Identification

Chemical Exposure: Workers can be exposed to volatile organic compounds and other hazardous chemicals found in petroleum products and thermal coating substances1 2. Prolonged exposure can lead to respiratory issues, skin irritation, and more severe conditions like chemical pneumonitis1 2 3.

Particulate Matter: The process of extracting and processing cellulose from wood pulp generates dust and fine particulate matter4 5. Inhalation of these particles can lead to respiratory conditions, including chronic bronchitis and lung function impairment4 5.

Evaluation

Level of Risk to Workers

The risk level of workers extracting petroleum-based agents and wood pulp is especially high2 5. For example, workers are at increased risk for cancer, including mesothelioma, prostate cancer, and lung cancer1 2 3. Exposure to hazardous chemicals can lead to respiratory diseases, skin disorders, and other long-term health complications3.

Measurement of Risk

  • Hazard Identification: Analyzing work processes and potential sources of chemical or physical harm6.

  • Environmental Monitoring: Sampling air, water, and surfaces for specific chemicals or contaminants2.

  • Biomonitoring: Measuring levels of substances or their metabolites in workers’ bodily fluids (blood, urine)2.

Exposure Limits

One of the key challenges in setting occupational exposure limits (OELs) for petroleum industry workers is the complex mixture of hydrocarbons and other potentially hazardous agents they can be exposed to7. For example, hydrogen sulfide and acetone serve as a key precursor in the production of chemicals found in receipt paper, such as BPA and BPS7.

Hydrogen Sulfide OELs

CountryAgencyTWA† Exposure LimitWorkplace Exposure Limit
United StatesOccupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)820 ppm20 ppm
CanadaCanadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS)91 ppm-
European UnionEuropean Chemicals Agency (ECHA)101 ppm‡-

†Note. Time-weighted average (TWA) is the average exposure over eight hours.
‡Note. The EU does not specify a unified limit, but 1 ppm is widely referenced.

Acetone OELs

CountryAgencyTWA† Exposure LimitWorkplace Exposure Limit
United StatesOccupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)111000 ppm‡3000 ppm
CanadaCanadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS)12250 ppm500 ppm
European UnionEuropean Chemicals Agency (ECHA)13-500 ppm

†Note. Time-weighted average (TWA) is the average exposure over eight hours.
‡Note. The California Division of OSHA exposure limit is 500 ppm TWA.

Wood Dust OELs

For wood pulp production and extraction, the following OELs for wood dust are published. Note that different wood species carry unique risks and exposure concerns14.

CountryAgencyTWA† Exposure LimitWorkplace Exposure Limit
United StatesOccupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)145 mg/m315 mg/m3
CanadaCanadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS)151–5 mg/m3–
European UnionEuropean Chemicals Agency (ECHA)162 mg/m3–

†Note. Time-weighted average (TWA) is the average exposure over eight hours.

Types of Workers Most at Risk

  • Drilling & Fracking Crews: Especially workers with direct exposure to crude oil, hydrogen sulfide, acetone, and fracking chemicals2.

  • Mechanics & Maintenance Workers: Workers can be exposed to a wide range of chemicals and physical hazards2.

  • Pulp Mill Workers: Workers with direct exposure to chemicals used in pulping and bleaching processes5.

  • Transportation Workers: Accidents involving tankers, exposure to hazardous materials, chemical off-gassing during transport of wood pulp, and during loading and unloading2 5.

Potential Burden of Injury/Illness

  • Acute injuries: Burns, lacerations, crush injuries, respiratory harm from chemical releases or exposure2 5.

  • Chronic illnesses: Cancers (leukaemia, lung cancer)17, respiratory diseases (silicosis, COPD, bronchitis)3, skin conditions (dermatitis, chemical burns)1 3, neurological disorders2, asthma and allergic reactions (wood dust, mould)4.

Control

Elimination and Substitution: Replacing hazardous chemicals with safer alternatives2.

Engineering Controls: Ventilation systems to reduce airborne contaminants, soundproofing to mitigate exposure2 5.

Administrative Controls: Implementing shift rotations to limit exposure time, proper training on the hazards and safe handling of chemicals[&24] 7.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Gloves, masks, and protective clothing to minimize direct exposure7.

  1. O’Callaghan-Gordo C, Orta-Martínez M, Kogevinas M. Health effects of non-occupational exposure to oil extraction. Environ Health. 2016 Apr 26;15(1):56. ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎

  2. Yadav UK, Dewan R, Verma N, Singh A. Prominent Safety and Health Hazards During Crude Extraction: A Review of Process. J Fail Anal Prev. 2021 Apr 1;21(2):604–9. ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎

  3. Onyije FM, Hosseini B, Togawa K, Schüz J, Olsson A. Cancer Incidence and Mortality among Petroleum Industry Workers and Residents Living in Oil Producing Communities: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021 Jan;18(8):4343. ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎

  4. Torén K, Neitzel R, Sallsten G, Andersson E. Occupational exposure to soft paper dust and mortality. Occup Environ Med. 2020 Aug;77(8):549–54. ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎

  5. Torén K, Hagberg S, Westberg H. Health effects of working in pulp and paper mills: exposure, obstructive airways diseases, hypersensitivity reactions, and cardiovascular diseases. Am J Ind Med. 1996 Feb;29(2):111–22. ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎

  6. Astrup TF, Tonini D, Turconi R, Boldrin A. Life cycle assessment of thermal Waste-to-Energy technologies: Review and recommendations. Waste Manag. 2015 Mar 1;37:104–15. ↩︎

  7. IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Occupational Exposures in Petroleum Refining; Crude Oil and Major Petroleum Fuels [Internet]. Lyon, FR: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 1989 [cited 2024 Mar 4]. (IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans). Available from: NCBI ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎ ↩︎

  8. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Hydrogen Sulfide [Internet]. Occupational Chemical Database. n.d. [cited 2024 Feb 28]. Available from: OSHA ↩︎

  9. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. Hydrogen Sulfide [Internet]. Chemical Profile. 2024 [cited 2024 Feb 28]. Available from: CCOHS ↩︎

  10. European Chemicals Agency. Hydrogen Sulfide [Internet]. Substance Infocard. 2023 [cited 2024 Feb 28]. Available from: ECHA ↩︎

  11. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Permissible Exposure Limits, Annotated Tables [Internet]. Occupational Chemical Database. 2021 [cited 2024 Feb 28]. Available from: OSHA ↩︎

  12. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. Acetone [Internet]. Chemical Profile. 2023 [cited 2024 Feb 28]. Available from: CCOHS ↩︎

  13. European Chemicals Agency. Acetone [Internet]. Substance Infocard. 2023 [cited 2024 Feb 28]. Available from: ECHA ↩︎

  14. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Woodworking: Health Hazards, Wood Dust, & Carcinogens [Internet]. Woodworking eTool. n.d. [cited 2024 Feb 28]. Available from: OSHA ↩︎ ↩︎

  15. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. Wood Dust [Internet]. Chemical Profile. 2023 [cited 2024 Feb 28]. Available from: CCOHS ↩︎

  16. European Parliament. Protecting workers: stricter limits on cancer-causing substances [Internet]. Press Room. 2017 [cited 2024 Feb 28]. Available from: European Parliamentprotecting-workers-stricter-limits-on-cancer-causing-substances ↩︎

  17. Liao C, Kannan K. Widespread Occurrence of Bisphenol A in Paper and Paper Products: Implications for Human Exposure. Environ Sci Technol. 2011 Nov 1;45(21):9372–9. ↩︎

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